NANDURBAR

Nandurbar is a district located in the Khandesh region of Maharashtra, sharing its borders with Dhule district and the states of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Its location at the intersection of state boundaries has had a significant impact on its linguistic landscape, resulting in a range of speech forms influenced by languages spoken in neighboring regions.

Several indigenous communities also reside in the district, each with their own spoken styles and linguistic practices. This has given rise to a distinct mix of languages that sets Nandurbar apart from much of Maharashtra. Bhili is the most widely spoken language in the district, while Marathi, Ahirani, and Powari are also used in communication across various communities. Together, these languages reflect a linguistic environment that is markedly different from the rest of the state.

Remarkably, the 2011 Census of India data reveals that several languages are spoken as mother tongues in Nandurbar district. At the time of the Census (2011), Nandurbar district had a total population of approximately 16.48 lakh (16,48,295).

Of this population, 45.77% reported Bhili/Bhilodi as their first language. This was followed by Marathi (16.06%), Ahirani (8.77%), Pawri (7.34%), Mawchi (4.40%), Urdu (3.76%), Hindi (2.62%), Kokna/Kokni/Kukna (2.61%), Gujarati (1.94%), and Gojri/Gujjari/Gujar (1.62%).

Bhilli, also known as Bhillori or Dehwali, is a language variety spoken by the Bhil community, who are regarded to be among the oldest living communities inhabiting India. The Bhils are spread across several states in western India, and their language reflects this geographic and cultural diversity. In Nandurbar district, Bhilli was the most widely spoken language at the time of the 2011 Census, with 7,54,442 people, which is 45.77% of the population, reporting it as their mother tongue. Nandurbar is perhaps the only district in Maharashtra where a language spoken by an indigenous community constitutes the linguistic majority.

The historical development of Bhilli has been explored by several scholars. Pushpa Gavit, in the volume Languages of Maharashtra (2017), notably mentions that the history of Bhilli shows that “It [likely] evolved from Shauraseni Prakrit Prakrit Abrahamsa.” (an old language family). Over time, it has developed into a cluster of related varieties, each shaped by the sub-group of Bhils who speak it and the languages spoken in nearby regions. As a result, Bhilli today shows influences from Khandeshi, Marathi, Gujarati, and Rajasthani.

Bhilli is marked by several distinct phonological (sound) features that set it apart from other regional languages:

• It does not include the vowel ए (e) or the consonants छ (chha), ळ (ḷa), and ष (ṣa).
• The cluster क्ष (kṣa) and the consonants ल (la) and न (na) are often replaced by ख (kha).
• The sound ह (ha) is frequently used in place of स (sa), श (sha), ष (ṣa), and ळ (ḷa).
• च (cha) often replaces झ (jha). So, for instance, the word झाड (jhaad) becomes चाड (chaad) in Bhilli.

These kinds of substitutions contribute to Bhilli’s unique sound pattern, one that often feels very different from others to outside ears.

Bhilli uses a pronoun system that includes forms not seen in Marathi, Hindi, or Gujarati, or might slightly vary from them when it comes to sound and the way they are spelt. These reflect both collective identity and grammatical uniqueness.

A common feature that can be seen in many Bhilli words is the use of the “-yo” suffix (word endings) in verbs, especially in past or completed actions. This gives the verbs a distinct rhythmic feel.

This “yo” ending is also used in many day names, giving Bhilli a recognizable and patterned structure in how it marks the calendar.

Reduplication (repeating part or entirety of a word) is a common feature in Bhilli. In some cases, this repetition is semantic (it adds or changes meaning), and in others, it is rhythmic or emphatic (used for effect or sound).

These constructions often rhyme or play with sounds, giving Bhilli a lively and oral quality, especially in conversation and storytelling.

Like many other languages, Bhilli includes expressive proverbs and idioms that reflect everyday life and values of the community.

These idioms carry practical wisdom and often use physical imagery (like food or walking) to reflect deeper truths about behavior and responsibility.

As the Bhil community resides across multiple states, the Bhilli language has naturally absorbed borrowed words from neighboring languages: most notably Gujarati, Marathi, and at times, Rajasthani. These borrowed forms often appear in daily vocabulary and reflect the linguistic environments in which Bhilli is spoken.

For example, the word for “two” in Bhilli is Ben, which closely resembles be in Gujarati. Similarly, the word हकाल (hakāl), meaning “morning,” is likely a regional variation of the Marathi word सकाळ (sakāl).

Ahirani is a language spoken by the Ahir (also Aabhir) community, whose historical roots trace back to ancient India. The language is primarily used in the region framed by the Satpuda and Sahyadri mountain ranges in an area called Khandesh. In Nandurbar district, according to the 2011 Census, 1,44,625 people, or 8.77% of the population, reported Ahirani as their mother tongue, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the district.

Very notably, Ahirani is referenced in significant early texts and inscriptions. Interestingly, Sudhir Deore in Languages of Maharashtra (2017) remarks that the language appears in ancient Indian epics such as the Ramayan and Mahabharat. Furthermore, he mentions that Bharat Muni’s Natyashastra refers to Ahirani as the vibhasha (the spoken language) of the Ahirs.

Notably, there is also direct epigraphic evidence (writing inscribed on stone) of Ahirani’s historical use. According to Deore (2017), the latter part of a rock inscription dated to 1206 CE, located at the Shribhavani Mandir in Patan (Jalgaon district), is written in Ahirani, making it one of the earliest known written references to the language. This section of the inscription documents the establishment of a school dedicated to the study of astrology. It was carved by Changdeo, the grandson of the renowned mathematician Bhaskaracharya, under the patronage of Sindhan Yadav of Devagiri.

In present-day Maharashtra, Ahirani is widely spoken in four districts. Interestingly, while it is spoken across a wide area of northern Maharashtra, its form is far from uniform. It exists in multiple regionally and socially differentiated varieties, with Deore (2017) mentioning that at least 21 distinct forms are recorded.

Variation occurs not only across geography but also within various communities and occupational groups. Differences in how people speak Ahirani may include changes in sounds, sentence structures, or the use of specific words.

Ahirani draws influence from both Marathi and Gujarati, due to its close proximity to both the language-speaking communities. Many words appear to be shared across these languages, either through inheritance or common roots, while others are borrowed. Some commonly used Gujarati-origin words in Ahirani include:

However, Ahirani also includes several word forms and sound patterns that distinguish it from both Marathi and Gujarati. One clear example is the Ahirani word for “is”, which is “se”. This differs from “ahe” in Marathi and “che” in Gujarati. The use of “se” may show how Ahirani either simplifies or blends elements from both languages, or it may represent an independently developed form unique to the region.

There are also pronunciation differences. In certain varieties of Ahirani, particularly in Jalgaon, speakers often pronounce the sound “ya” where standard Marathi would use “la”. This shift is a small but consistent example of how phonology (the sound system of a language) can vary.

The pronoun system in Ahirani will seem familiar to Marathi speakers, as it uses forms like मी (mī), आमी (āmī), तू (tū), and तुम्ही (tumhī). However, it also includes some forms that are distinctive, such as the forms आपू (āpū) and आपुन (āpūn).

In terms of kinship terms, Ahirani speakers use a mix of familiar and unique words for family members. While some sound like those in Marathi, others are quite different.

The words घैडा (ghaiḍā) and घैडी (ghaiḍī) are not found in Marathi and suggest a deeply localized naming system.

Furthermore, as mentioned above, like many languages that exist in a contact zone (where speakers of different languages live nearby), Ahirani includes words from both Marathi and Gujarati, especially when it comes to basic concepts like seasons.

Speakers may switch between these depending on region or familiarity. This is a good example of borrowing (taking a word from one language and using it in another), which happens frequently in areas where communities have traded, interacted, or coexisted for generations.

Ahirani also has many words that are distinct in both form and meaning. Some sound expressive or playful, while others reflect the local landscape, daily life, or emotional states.

The word हाऊ (hāū), for instance, is used for agreement but is phonetically different from Marathi हो (ho) or Gujarati હા (hā). It carries its own rhythm and emphasis in Ahirani. भांगा (bhanga) is often used expressively in conversation, adding emotion or tone to complaints or teasing.

Very interestingly, Ahirani speakers often use phrases and idioms that rely on sensory imagery (taste, smell, light) and onomatopoeia (words that imitate sounds).

The word फटफटी (phaṭaphaṭī) is an example of onomatopoeia (sound based words), it imitates a quick, sharp, flashing or popping sound. It is used here to describe intense sunlight, as if the sunlight itself is making noise, showing how Ahirani often uses sound-based language to describe experience.

The phrase चवना ना धवना (literally “neither taste nor smell”) expresses dislike or disinterest in something. Like many idioms, it is grounded in everyday physical experiences, and relies on metaphor to communicate judgment.

Powari is spoken by the Powar community, who live along the border of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. In Nandurbar district, according to the 2011 Census, 1,21,038 people, or 7.34% of the population, reported Powari as their mother tongue. The language is mentioned in Languages of Maharashtra (2017), where it is noted that the Powar people trace their origins to North India, something reflected in the features of the language, particularly the influence of Hindi. At the same time, Marathi influence is also present, especially in vocabulary and naming conventions. Many Powar surnames end with the Marathi suffix –e, such as Rane, Patale, and Tembale.

Other than that, very interestingly, words for seasons in Powari show both borrowing and shifts in pronunciation. For instance, the Gujarati word for summer, ઉનાળો (unāḷō) or the Marathi उन्हाळा (unhāḷā), becomes उनारो (unāro) in Powari. The form changes slightly in sound, but the structure and meaning remain close, suggesting contact or shared usage.

For winter, Powari uses the term ठंडकाल (ṭhaṇḍkāl), a compound word (a word formed by joining two words together) made up of ठंड (ṭhaṇḍ) meaning cold, and काल (kāl), which perhaps comes from the Hindi word that means ‘period of time.’ This compound is not commonly used in either Hindi or Marathi, marking it as distinctive within Powari.

A notable grammatical feature of Powari is its use of the “-no” (नो) suffix in many verb forms. This suffix is added to a verb root to mark the action. Some examples are given below:

These examples show how -no is regularly used to form verbs, and also how some Powari verb roots align with Marathi, particularly for everyday actions.