PUNE

The linguistic landscape of Pune district can be perhaps characterized as being one of the most diverse in Maharashtra. With two major urban centers within its boundaries, the district has long been home to a variety of communities, each practicing their own linguistic traditions. Notably, the 2011 Census of India recorded that around 80 languages and dialects are spoken as mother tongues in the district, illustrating its multilingual character.

In contemporary times, English has gained prominence as the second language due to its domineering presence in the district’s education, IT, corporate sectors, and elite institutions. The district, especially Pune City, often called the "Oxford of the East", has numerous universities and IT hubs, making English an important lingua franca for professionals and students.

Despite the increasing presence of global languages, Pune remains linguistically distinct. Puneri Marathi, a regional variety with its own phonetic and lexical characteristics, continues to be widely spoken across the district. Other less documented yet significant languages, such as Katkari, Parushi Maang Garudi, Thakaree and Golla also play a crucial role in the cultural and linguistic diversity of the district.

At the time of the 2011 Census, Pune district had a total population of approximately 94 lakh (94,29,408).  Marathi is the most widely spoken language in Pune district, with 78.17% of the population identifying it as their mother tongue. Hindi follows at 10.04%, and its presence has grown in recent years likely due to migration from other parts of India, particularly by workers, students, and professionals. Other languages with notable speaker populations include Urdu (1.89%), Kannada (1.40%), Marwari (1.34%), Telugu (1.31%), Gujarati (1.15%), and Tamil (0.55%).

In addition, smaller linguistic communities contribute to Pune’s diversity, including speakers of Malayalam (0.53%), Bengali (0.45%), Sindhi (0.43%), Vadari (0.38%), Lamani/Lambadi (0.37%), Punjabi (0.34%), Bhojpuri (0.27%), and Odia (0.20%). Languages such as Nepali (0.14%), Banjari (0.13%), Rajasthani (0.12%), English (0.12%), Kokna/Kokni/Kukna (0.12%), and Konkani (0.09%) are also spoken, though by a smaller percentage of the population.

Marathi, the most widely-spoken language spoken in Pune, has a rich and fascinating history. However, the way Marathi is spoken in Pune, referred to as Puneri Marathi, has its own distinctive characteristics. The evolution of Puneri Marathi is intrinsically tied to the broader development of the Marathi language itself, a process that can particularly be seen in Pune. As noted in the Pune District Gazetteer (1991), the origins of Marathi can be traced to Maharashtri Prakrit. Evidence of this can be found in a 1st century BCE stone inscription from the Naneghat caves in Pune, which attests to the linguistic foundations of Marathi being over 2,000 years old.

The journey of Marathi, many scholars believe, began with its descent from Maharashtri Prakrit, evolving over centuries to its current form. Over time, numerous literary figures have shaped the language's literary landscape. The earliest known Marathi writer is Mukundaraja, credited with composing Vivekasindhu and Paramamrita, early texts in Marathi literature, often dated to the 12th century. The Varkari sect too played a vital role in enriching Marathi literature. Sants like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, and Tukaram contributed significantly by using the language to promote both spiritual growth and social reform. Another significant literary tradition, ‘Panditi Marathi’ emerged, blending Sanskrit metrical patterns with Marathi vocabulary, attributed to Vaman Pandit.

It was during Shivaji Maharaj’s reign that Marathi became a language of administration, replacing Persian in the court and military, solidifying its role as the lingua franca of the Maratha Empire. Pune, as the cultural and political center of the Marathas and Peshwas, played a key role in spreading Marathi beyond Maharashtra. The popularity of folk art forms like Lavani and Powada, which used Marathi lyrics, further reinforced its cultural and artistic expansion. During the Maratha Empire, chronicles known as ‘Bakhar’ documented political events, preserving the usage of Marathi alongside Perso-Arabic influences and unique syntactic styles.

During British rule, Marathi remained the primary language of communication in Pune. Even as English became more prominent in administration and education, Marathi remained essential for social interactions. British officials James Thomas Molesworth and Thomas Candy, with the help of Pune’s Brahmin scholars, created the first Marathi-English dictionary in 1831, which standardized the Pune dialect of Marathi and shaped much of the language’s usage.

In the Indian Freedom Movement, Marathi newspapers like Kesari and Pudari, published in Pune, became powerful tools for spreading nationalist and reformist ideas. The use of Marathi in publications, newspapers, and literature demonstrated its ability to unite people and mobilize resistance against British rule. These local presses continue till date and are easily available in local shops.

Notably, the variety used in Pune is often described by its speakers as more closely aligned with formal or literary Marathi. This variety is noted for its grammatical regularity, careful pronunciation, and consistent usage, which some speakers associate with linguistic correctness.

In Pune, it is common for Marathi to be used in most social interactions, including with individuals who may not be fluent in the language. Switching to Hindi would be a miracle and most people are not accommodating to speak with if one struggles in Marathi. In fact, many joke that Punekars do not switch to Hindi because they are bad at it.

Marathi has a well-defined vowel system (स्वर), and the Puneri variety closely adheres to this system. It includes both short and long vowels, such as /a/, /ā/, /i/, /ī/, /u/, /ū/, /e/, /ē/, /o/, and /ō/. Then there is ऋ, a sound somewhat like “ru,” found in names like ऋचा (rucha). A nasalized vowel marker ं, which adds a soft “n” or “m” sound. The visarga, written as ः, adds a soft breathy “h” sound at the end of words like स्वतः (“oneself”).

The consonant (व्यंजन) system in Marathi is also well-structured. There are ordinary consonants like क (k), ग (g), प (p), and ब (b), which are quite straightforward. But Marathi also includes a set of retroflex consonants, which are spoken with the tongue curled slightly backward. These include:

• ट and ठ – hard “t” sounds
• ड and ढ – hard “d” sounds
• ण – a retroflex “n”

These sounds may feel unusual at first but are a natural part of Indian languages and give Marathi its distinctive rhythm.

Other consonants include:

• स, श, and ष – all different kinds of “s” or “sh” sounds
• ह – a soft “h” sound
• व – often sounds like a mix of “v” and “w”
• म, न, and ङ – nasal sounds like “m” and “n”

Marathi also uses combinations of consonants at the start of words — like श्री (shrī, a respectful title) or स्त्री (strī, meaning “woman”).

Marathi words are made up of different sound patterns, or syllables. Some are very simple, and others are a bit more complex. The way these sounds come together helps shape the rhythm of the language. For example:

• A word can be just a vowel sound, like ऊ (/ū/), which means “louse.”
• Some words are made from two vowels joined together, like आई (/āī/), which means “mother.”
• Many words start with a single consonant followed by a vowel. One example is का (/kā/), meaning “why?”
• Some begin with two consonants, like श्री (/shrī/), a respectful title used before names.
• Even three consonants can appear at the start of a word, like in स्त्री (/strī/), which means “woman.”
• In other words, the consonants come at the beginning and end, with a vowel in the middle — for example, कान (/kān/), meaning “ear.”
• Some words have long vowel sounds in the middle, like नाईक (/nāik/), a historical title for a military leader.
• Others begin with two consonants and have a vowel in the middle, like प्रेम (/prem/), meaning “love.”

Marathi has distinct script and sound features. Marathi is written in the Devanagari script, which includes ten vowels and thirty-three consonants. Some symbols in the script are uniquely used in Marathi or have specific pronunciations. The letter ऋ (ru) appears in words like ऋचा (Rucha) and ऋग्वेद (Rigveda), and is rarely found outside Sanskrit-influenced words. The nasalized vowel marker ं (anusvara) gives a soft “n” or “m” sound, seen in words like जंगल (jangal, “forest”) and रंग (rang, “color”). Another character, the visarga (ः), adds a breath-like “h” sound to the end of words such as स्वतः (swatah, “oneself”).

Marathi also includes many words that begin with clusters of consonants. These clusters are a feature of the language’s sound system. Examples include क्षय (kshay, “decay”), ज्ञान (dnyan, “knowledge”), and त्रस्त (trast, “troubled” or “annoyed”). Some sounds, such as the letter ज (ja  [ǰ]), can be pronounced differently depending on the word. For example, the word जग (jag) might mean “the world” when spoken with a harder ‘j’ sound, but it can also mean “to live” when pronounced with a softer tone. Similarly, चमचा (chamcha) can mean “spoon” or be used informally to describe someone who is overly flattering, depending on pronunciation and context.

The sound and spelling of the language is also influenced by English. Like many modern Indian languages, Marathi has absorbed sounds and words from English. These are often written using special symbols in Devanagari. For example, ऍ represents a short “a” sound, as in ऍपल (aepl, “apple”), and ऑ is used for a deeper “o” sound, as in डॉक्टर (daktar, “doctor”). In rural areas during the 19th and 20th centuries, these borrowed sounds were often pronounced differently. For example, “bank” became ब्यांक (byank) and “doctor” was often pronounced डाक्टर (daktar). These variations are now considered informal or outdated in urban settings, but they remain part of Marathi’s spoken history.

In Marathi, nouns are marked for number (singular or plural), gender, and case. This process, known as inflection, involves changing the form of a noun to reflect its role in a sentence or the quantity it refers to. These changes are usually made by adding specific suffixes.

Marathi distinguishes three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. These gender categories apply not only to living beings but also to inanimate objects and abstract concepts. The same noun root can often take different endings to indicate gender. Many feminine and neuter nouns in Marathi are derived from masculine forms, a pattern noted by linguists Ramesh Vaman Dhongde and Kashi Wali (2009). The following examples illustrate this pattern:

Marathi verbs change according to tense (past, present, future), aspect (completed or ongoing action), mood (e.g. statement or command), person, number, and gender. This is known as verb conjugation in grammar. There are two main types of verbs in Marathi:

• Simple verbs, such as वाचतो (vāchato) – "reads"
• Compound verbs, such as जेवत आहे (jevata āhe) – "is eating"

Verb endings must agree with the gender and number of the relevant noun, even if that noun isn’t the subject. For example:

• आईने गार्गीला फुले दिली (aaine Gargila phule dili) – "The mother gave flowers to Gargee"
• आईने गार्गीला मार दिला (aaine Gargila maar dila) – "The mother gave Gargee a beating"
• आईने गार्गीला पिल्लू दिले (aaine Gargila pillu dile) – "The mother gave Gargee a puppy"

In each case, the verb form (दिली / dilī, दिला / dilā, दिले / dile) changes based on the gender and number of the object being given, not the subject. Also, in these sentences, the subject (आईने – aaine, "mother") stays the same, but the verb changes depending on whether the object is plural (फुले – phule), masculine (मार – maar), or neuter (पिल्लू – pillu).

In Marathi, small word endings are used to show the role of a noun in a sentence — such as who is doing the action and who is receiving it. These endings help identify the subject, object, or recipient, even if the word order changes.

One common ending is -ने (-ne), which is often used when referring to someone who performed an action in the past. For example:

• आईने (aaine) means "the mother" as the one who acted. In the sentence आईने गार्गीला फुले दिली (aaine Gargee-la phule dili) — "The mother gave flowers to Gargee" — the ending -ने on आई marks her as the one performing the action.

Another common ending is -ला (-la), which shows the person receiving something or being affected by the action.

• गार्गीला (Gargee-la) means "to Gargee." In the same sentence, गार्गीला shows who received the flowers.

In present-tense sentences or when referring to speakers like "I" or "we," these endings are often left out, but the sentence is still understood based on context and verb agreement. This system of word endings plays an important role in Marathi sentence structure. It allows for flexible word order while keeping the meaning clear.

Pronouns and honorifics in Puneri Marathi reflect varying levels of respect and familiarity. For example, तू (tu) is used with close friends, younger people, or in casual situations, while तुम्ही (tumhi) is the polite or formal “you,” often used with elders or in formal speech. Another form, आपण (apan), is used both as a very respectful “you” and as an inclusive “we,” depending on context. These distinctions are especially important in Pune, where attention to social politeness in language is common and expected.

Loanwords and language influence are clearly seen in the Marathi spoken in Pune. Marathi spoken in Pune reflects the city's long history as a centre of learning, politics, and administration. As a result, the local variety includes a wide range of loanwords from languages such as Sanskrit, Persian, Hindi, and English. These borrowed words are used in both daily and formal communication, although there is a strong emphasis on using pure or "shuddha" Marathi by many in literary and official contexts.

Interestingly, Marathi has borrowed not just vocabulary, but also some grammatical constructions. Linguists Ramesh Vaman Dhongde and Kashi Wali (2009) note that the conjunction 'की' (ki), meaning "that," used in complex sentences to introduce subordinate clauses, is a borrowing from Persian. For example: तो म्हणाला की त्याने आपल्या दोघांना बघितलं आहे. (To mhanaala ki tyaane aaplya doghaanna baghitlaa aahe.) which translates to "He said that he has seen both of us." The word ki links the two parts of the sentence and reflects Persian influence on Marathi grammar.

Puneri Marathi includes a range of expressions that reflect the social and cultural atmosphere of Pune. While the language shares its structure with other regional varieties of Marathi, the style of speaking in Pune is often described as direct, sharp, and sometimes sarcastic. These qualities are noticeable in both private conversation and public communication.

A commonly heard phrase is “काय रे, पुणेरी का?” (kai re, Puneri ka?), which roughly translates to “What’s this, are you being Puneri?” It is often used in a teasing way to refer to someone being overly particular, blunt, or rule-focused — traits that are sometimes associated with how people in Pune speak or behave. These associations extend to everyday interactions, where locals may be perceived as curt or disinterested — such as a rickshaw driver refusing a ride without explanation or a shopkeeper responding briefly without pleasantries.

This characteristic tone is captured most clearly in Puneri Patya; printed or handwritten signboards placed outside shops, houses, and buildings in Pune. These signs often contain instructions or reminders, but they are written in a distinctly sarcastic or matter-of-fact manner. Rather than being formal or neutral, they are often intentionally blunt, sometimes humorous, and widely recognised for their dry delivery.

Some well-known examples of Puneri Patya include:

Some more examples of Puneri Pati:

• “एकदा या घरी” - When a Puneri person says, “Come home someday,” it literally means, “Come someday, but not today, and only once.”
• “फोटो खराब आल्यास पालकांना जाब विचारावा, आम्हाला नाही.” - Found outside a photo studio, this sign declares, “If your photo doesn’t turn out well, blame your parents, not us.”
• “येथे बसून पान खाऊन थुंकणाऱ्यांचे गाल लाल केले जातील.” - “Those who chew betel leaves and spit here will have their cheeks reddened immediately (i.e., they will be beaten).”
• “दोघांत एक मिसळ खाल्ल्याने जसे प्रेम वाढते तसेच ४० रु. देखिल वाढविण्यात येतील.” - “Sharing food increases love, but sharing a misal here will also increase the bill by 40 rupees.”
• “चोरांनो सावध रहा. ह्या परिसरात मोबाईल व इतर कुठल्याही वस्तूची चोरी करताना सापडल्याम मांडवाच्या मागील बाजूस 'महाप्रसाद' देण्यात येईल.” - “Thieves, be cautious! If you are caught stealing mobiles or any items here, you will receive 'Mahaprasad' (a beating) behind the mandap (stage).”

Hindi is widely understood and spoken in the district, especially in urban areas, due to migration from other parts of India. Hindi, as one of India’s most widely spoken languages, enjoys a significant presence in Pune, a city known for its educational institutions, cultural diversity, and cosmopolitan nature. While Marathi is the dominant regional language, the influence of Hindi is pervasive, especially in urban areas, among people from different linguistic backgrounds. Over time, the Hindi spoken in Pune has developed unique features due to the interaction between Marathi and Hindi, as well as the influence of other languages and cultures.

The variety of Hindi spoken in Pune exhibits several characteristics influenced by Marathi, the language predominantly spoken in the region. Here are the key areas where Marathi influences can be observed in Pune’s Hindi:

Pronunciation: One of the most noticeable features is the influence of Marathi pronunciation on Hindi spoken in Pune. For instance, the pronunciation of certain sounds, especially retroflex consonants like "ट" (ṭa), "ठ" (ṭh), and "ड" (ḍa) in Hindi, is pronounced more like in Marathi. In contrast, Hindi speakers from North India might pronounce these sounds with more aspiration and softness.

Tonal Influence: Marathi, being a language with high tonal variations, influences the rise and fall of pitch in Pune Hindi. This gives Pune Hindi a slightly melodic quality that sets it apart from the flat or formal speech of North Indian Hindi.

Vocabulary Differences: Hindi spoken in Pune incorporates numerous Marathi words and expressions, which aren’t typically used in North Indian Hindi. Pune’s Hindi includes Marathi terms for everyday objects, emotions, and actions. This blend of Marathi and Hindi vocabulary has led to the development of a localized form of Hindi.

Pronoun Usage: In North Indian Hindi, there is a clear distinction between formal and informal pronouns. "तुम" (tum) is used informally, and "आप" (āp) is used formally. In Pune Hindi, "तुम" is used more frequently, even in formal contexts, showing the influence of Marathi, where informal pronouns are used more liberally.

Use of Marathi Loanwords: Pune Hindi speakers incorporate numerous Marathi words into their speech, particularly in informal settings. Common Marathi words like ‘पण’ (paṇ - but), ‘ठीक आहे’ (ṭhīk āhe - okay) are often used, and these are understood in their Marathi sense even by Hindi speakers. Example: "क्या तुम ठीक हो?" (kya tum ṭhīk hai?) might become "क्या तुम ठीक आहे?" (kya tum ṭhīk āhe?) in Pune Hindi, borrowing directly from Marathi.

In other forms Hindi people would say, ‘Poona ke log dopeherko sote hai.’(People who are born and brought up in Pune have the habit of  taking a nap in afternoons.) But the dialect of Hindi spoken here in Pune has slight variation. People usually use terms such as ‘पुणेकर’ (residents of Pune) in spite knowing the fact that Hindi doesn’t have ‘ण’ (ɳ) sound. Thus we can hear something such as. ’Pooɳekar/ punevale log dopeherko sote hai. Here, one can certainly observe the impression of local languages onto Hindi.

Parushi Maang Garudi is a language spoken by the Maang Garudi community, in different parts of Maharashtra including Pune. Unlike the Maang language spoken by related communities, Parushi Maang Garudi developed as a distinct linguistic entity, shaped by the lifestyle, social structures, and historical experiences of its speakers.

Laxman Chavan in the book Languages of Maharashtra (2017) writes, the Maang Garudi community has a long history of mobility, often migrating across Nandurbar, Dhule, Jalgaon, Nashik, Pune, Kolhapur, and Sangli, as well as parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Due to prolonged interaction with Marathi-speaking and Kannada- and Telugu-speaking populations, Parushi Maang Garudi shows linguistic influences from these languages while maintaining its own unique phonetics, vocabulary, and syntax.

One of the most fascinating aspects of this language is its use of coded expressions and concealed meanings, a feature likely developed as a response to the criminalization of the Maang Garudi community under British rule. Words related to law enforcement, social hierarchy, and everyday activities often carry hidden meanings.

As the language is an oral and endangered language spoken primarily by the Maang Garudi community there is no official census data available on the exact number of Parushi. However, it is to be noted that not all Maang people speak the language , as many have shifted to Marathi due to socio-economic integration.

The language used by the Maang Garudi community gives us useful clues about their history, social identity, and how they’ve adapted over time. One interesting feature is the vocabulary, which shows evidence of the community’s movement across regions. Because they have lived in areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, their language includes borrowed words from Marathi, Kannada, and Telugu. Even so, Parushi Maang Garudi has kept its own distinctive pronunciation and grammar, which helps mark it as a separate language variety.

Like many languages, this one has a special set of words for close relationships in the family. Some examples are shown here:

There are also everyday words used to refer to parts of the body. These terms are often quite different from the equivalents in neighboring languages, which helps show how unique this variety is:

In terms of numbers, the language also uses its own forms for counting. Here are some examples:

Because the community has had contact with different languages over time, some words have been borrowed and adapted into their speech. This kind of borrowing is common in many languages and often happens when groups move around or live near other language communities. For example, words from Kannada have been brought into Parushi Maang Garudi and slightly changed in pronunciation:

Another interesting area of vocabulary comes from the community’s experience under British colonial rule. During that time, the Maang Garudi were unfairly labeled as a “Criminal Tribe” under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871. This label affected how they were treated by authorities, and the group developed secret or coded ways of talking about things like crime or the police. Some of these words are still found in their language:

The Golla language is spoken primarily by the Golla community, a pastoralist group historically involved in cattle rearing and trade. According to linguist Dhondiram Wadkar (2017), linguistically, the Golla language exhibits influences from Sanskrit, Hindi, Telugu (a Dravidian language), and, in Maharashtra, some Marathi elements. Golla speakers maintain a strong oral tradition, and the language does not have its own script, relying instead on the Devanagari script for written records. The Golla community is known for its rich folk traditions, including songs and folktales, which have been preserved orally and later documented in books. Due to their historical migrations and interactions with different linguistic groups, the language has absorbed vocabulary and structures from multiple regional languages.

Words for parts of the body include:

Common terms related to food are: